The Civil Rights Movement Of 1960s History Essay

The Civil Rights Movement Of 1960s History Essay The United States Supreme Court commands no armies, create no laws, and, generally, has no affiliations with the politics. However, its written opinions often change the course of American History. On May 17th, 1954 , the United States Supreme Court made the unanimous decision on the case Brown v. Board of Education Topeka, Kansas, 347 U.S. 483  [1]  , that declared segregation of white and Negro children in public schools denies Negro children the equal protection guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution even though physical facilities and other tangible factors of white and Negro schools may be equal.  [2]   One widely accepted claim is that the ruling of Brown played an important role in deeply influencing the civil rights movement. For blacks, the ruling of Brown had an ensuring effect that the federal government is on our side.  [3]  Julius Chamberss teenage memories of Brown is a reflection of this; we assumed that Brown was self-executing. The law had been announced, and people would have to obey it. Wasnt that how things worked in America, even in white America?.  [4]  A federal judge and a leading legal scholar, J. Harvie Wilkinson III, declared that Very little could have been accomplished in mid-century America without the Supreme CourtBrown maybe the most important political, social and legal event in Americas twentieth century history.  [5]  Many scholars, like Wilkinson, agree that the decision made by the Supreme Court and other court cases such as Brown II, Sarah Key v. Carolina Coach Company, and Browder v. Gayle that followed Brown dramatically improved the legal status of Americans by deeply influencing the civil rights movement.  [6]  It is evident that the Supreme Court decision on Brown had a deep symbolic impact on people. However, many other forces perhaps much more powerful than Brown also contributed to the paving of civil rights movement. The United States having helped in the defeat of Adolf Hitler a European leader who had practiced antisemitism, and persecuted many people who he believed were inferior to his German master race left many Americans repulsed by his racial policies  [7]  . This was a major cause for Americans to look at their own society with a critical lens. Shortly after the ruling of Brown, the civil rights movement gained considerable momentum.  [8]  Demonstrations such as the sit-ins of Greensboro, North Carolina and the bus boycott of Montgomery, Alabama are a reflection of the quickened civil rights movement. Michael Klarman, a constitutional law scholar, argued that political, economic, social, demographic, and intellectual forces in the 1940s and 1950s were already liberalizing race relations in the United States, even in the South. These changes would have undermined Jim Crow perhaps with less white bitterness regardless of Supreme Court intervention.  [9]  Forces mentioned ab ove had already increased optimism in the society, prior to the decision of Brown, causing racial beliefs to slowly decline. It is acceptable to claim that Brown played a role in paving the way for the civil rights movement of the 1960s. The decision of Brown brought attention to civil rights causes, caused guilt to Northern whites, and inspired many grassroots activists. However many other powerful social and economical forces outweighed the small role Brown played in paving the path for the civil rights movement. 1. What was the role Brown played in the civil rights movement of 1960s? Direct and indirect influences of Brown The influences Brown had on the civil rights movement can be distinguished into two categories; direct influences and indirect influences. Its direct impact on the civil rights movement was school desegregation. Indirect influences, as claimed by many scholars, were varied. These included, giving civil rights issues national attention to Northern whites feeling guilt and to inspiring many grassroots and other activists by legitimizing civil rights causes. When one looks at the influences of Brown to the civil rights movement, the claim seems invalid. The influences, both direct and indirect, were over shadowed by other forces. The decision of Brown had a fairly immediate effect on segregation in the border states and isolated portions of the peripheral South.  [10]  In Kentucky the percentage of black children attending the same school as white children increased from zero (at the time of the first Brown decision in 1954) to 28 percent in 1957-1958 and jumped to 54 percent in 1963-1964.  [11]  In Oklahoma, the figures were zero percent in 1954, 18 percent in 1957-1958, and 28 percent in 1963-1964.  [12]  In 1957-1958 0.09 percent of black children attending school with white children in Arkansas and 1.4 percent in Texas (the small net yield was due to small black populations).  [13]  However, statistics from the rest of the South indicates that Brown had very little immediate effect on school desegregation. For example, in Southern states such as Tennessee and North Carolina, blacks school children attending desegregated schools were 0.12 percent and 0.01 percent in 1959-1960, and 2.7 perce nt 0.54 percent in 1963-1964.  [14]  In the deeper Southern states such as South Carolina, Alabama, and Mississippi, black students did not attend an integrated public grade school in 1962-1963.  [15]  In the South as a whole, only 0.16 percent of black children were attending school with white children in 1959-1960 and this increased only slightly to 1.2 percent in 1963-1964.  [16]  Only in the later parts of 1960s, after the civil rights act of 1964, did desegregation in the south began to increase.  [17]  From these statistics it is apparent that there was little impact from Brown on school desegregation. Only a 1.04 percent increase in blacks and whites attending the same school was seen in four years. Considering that direct influences of Brown being very limited, it is difficult for one to accept that indirect influences of Brown played a significant role. Claimed by many scholars, Brown had brought issues of civil rights to a national audience. However, this was only true to a certain extent. Although Brown had increased attention to civil rights causes in the South, it gained less attention in the North. An opinion poll conducted in the summer of 1955 noted that 60 percent of Southern whites, as opposed to 17 percent of northern whites, had discussed the Supreme Court decision during the week before the decision was made.  [18]  33 percent of Southern whites, compared to six percent of Northern whites, in the same poll considered segregation a more important issue than crime, atomic bombs, and high taxes.  [19]  Media coverage of civil rights events suggests that very little attention was paid to court cases such as Brown. Other civil rights event that produced confrontation and violence were the highlight of civil rights media coverage.  [20]  Examples include the Montgomery bus boycott of 1955-1956, which had little con nection with Browns decision and sit-ins of Greensboro, Alabama.  [21]  In 1952 the New York Times gave relatively more coverage to civil rights issues than in 1954 or 1955 (the years of the first and second Brown decisions).  [22]  Respondents identifying civil rights issues as the nations ultimate problem increased after the bus boycott of Montgomery, Alabama, not by Brown. This increase was insignificant compared to the outburst of public attention to civil rights causes after the demonstrations in Birmingham, Alabama during the spring of 1963.  [23]  It is evident that Brown did not gain considerable attention from both Northern and Southern states. It seems that significant attention to civil rights causes were brought by demonstrations such as sit-ins of Greensboro and Montgomery bus boycotts, not by Brown. At the time television sets were first appearing in households. Violent images such as protesters being hit by high-pressure water jets from fire-hoses were bro ad casted over the air.  [24]  This would have likely gained more international support than court cases such as Brown published in newspapers. Another widely accepted claim is that Brown aroused sympathy of Northern whites regarding the cause of civil rights. However, there is little evidence suggesting that Brown was a causation for Northern whites to feel sympathetic to the civil rights causes.  [25]  An opinion poll conducted in July of 1959 reported that only a five percent increase in public support for school desegregation, that Brown promoted, over the preceding five years was seen.  [26]  Congresses willingness to sponsor legislation can be seen as Northern whites feeling sympathetic to civil rights causes. Amount of congressional sponsors for civil rights causes steadily increased through the late 1940s and peaked in 1951-1952. Then it declined through the remainder of the 1950s and reached an all time low in 1959-1960.  [27]  Another indication that there was no significant increase of civil rights consciousness among Northern whites was the willingness of the President and the Senate to see the Eisenh ower administrations 1956-1957 civil rights bill deprive of strength in the upper house.  [28]  Similarly, a study by Ema Lou Thornbroughs Indiana state Legislature proceedings revealed that the legislature discussed more civil rights issues during the 1950s than in the 1940s. But it did not enact meaningful legislation until after the civil rights revolution of the early 1960s.  [29]   One of the most popular and widely accepted assumptions regarding Browns decision was that it legitimized the civil rights causes, increased the hope of its success, and was a catalyst for new activism within the black community.  [30]  Activists in the civil rights movement has given many accounts of Browns significance. For example, Martin Luther King, Jr., declared in 1958 that Brown had brought hope to millions of disinherited Negroes who had formerly dared only dream of freedom..  [31]  Fred Shuttlesworth, leader of the indigenous civil rights movement in Birmingham, notes his role in the movement to Brown. Browns decision, as he remembered, stirred up in me what I knew all the time.  [32]  As Thurgoood Marshall found more people in the South willing to stand up as plaintiffs, they said The federal government is on our side.  [33]  Around sixty desegregation petitions filed by local branches of The National Association for Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) to school boards in the deep South in July of 1955.  [34]  This suggest that Brown inspired litigation that challenged state sponsored segregation. Shortly after Brown, in Greensboro, North Carolina, blacks began to desegregate the city golf courses. Also, blacks in Birmingham and Montgomery, Alabama, began to challenge segregation in city parks and public transportation by bringing court suits.  [35]  Not only did Brown assure people the legitimization of civil rights causes, it also stimulated black hope.  [36]  As Robert Jackson, a black history professor at Virginia Union University, notes This is a most exciting moment. I havent seen collective emotion since the day Roosevelt died. A lot of us havent been breathing for the last nine months. But today the students reacted as if a heavy burden had been lifted from their shoulders. They see a new world opening for them and those that follow them.  [37]  One staff member of the NAACP branch in New York recalled that t hey sat there looking at one another. The only emotion that we felt at that moment was awe-every one of us felt it.  [38]  Black leaders were hopeful that Brown would affect race relation in all dimensions of American life.  [39]  Charles Johnson, the President of Fisk University, explained in the summer of 1954, the principal enumeration was not merely that of constitutionality of racial segregationif segregation is unconstitutional in educational institutions, it is no less unconstitutional in other aspects of our national lives..  [40]  Martin Luther King, Jr., and A. Philip Randolph led prayer pilgrimage to Washington D.C., on the anniversary of Brown in the late 1950s, thus proving that blacks regarded Brown as an important symbol.  [41]  It is impossible to measure the legitimizing effect Brown had on the society. Because of this it is difficult for one to either accept or reject the interpretation. However it is not clear that Browns decision was needed for th e legitimization effect on the society. Other forces seem much more likely to have caused this legitimizing effect in the society. When assessing the impact of Brown, both direct and indirect, on the civil rights movement, one can conclude the little significance of Brown. Browns limited impact on school desegregation is widely accepted. However, its indirect contributions such as bringing civil rights issues national attention, causing guilt to Northern whites, and legalizing civil rights causes in the eyes of blacks seems exaggerated. As evidence shows, Brown only brought significant attention to civil rights causes in the South. National attention brought by other civil rights demonstrations such as the famous Montgomery bus boycott and electrifying sit-ins of Greensboro dwarfed that of Brown. The decision of Brown did not arouse significant guilt from the northern whites. As mentioned earlier, only a five percentage increase in public support for civil rights causes were seen after the decision of Brown. It is difficult to either accept or reject the claim of Brown legitimizing civil rights causes in the eye s of blacks. However more plausible factors such as political, economical, and social, that were in effect even before Brown, are much more likely to have effected the view of legitimized civil rights causes and essentially paving the way for the civil rights movement. 2. Postwar forces had relatively large effect on the civil rights movement Shortly after the decision made by the United States Supreme Court, the civil rights movement gained considerable momentum. Key to the quickened civil rights movement was ongoing postwar forces such as rising prosperity, high levels of education, and demographic movements.  [42]  These forces combined promoted expectations from both blacks and whites concerning ways of life including race relations.  [43]  When the effect of these forces are compared with Browns influence on the civil rights movement, it is evident that influence of Brown is exaggerated. Michael Klarman claim that the democratic ideology of World War II and the greater opportunities for political and economical advance that the war afforded had already fostered a civil rights consciousness in most American blacks.  [44]  This is reflected by the comment of a black veteran returning home from the war as he registered to vote:After having been overseas fighting for democracy, I thought that when we got back here we should enjoy a little of it.  [45]  It is evident that there were many effective challenges to civil rights before and during the war. In 1942 blacks in North Carolina issued the Southern Black Declaration of Independence.  [46]  This supported the Fair Employment Practice Committee and initiated actions to put an end to segregation, and inequalities in housing, medicine, and education.  [47]  Also during the war blacks, in Norfolk, Virginia, began to protest segregation in public transportation. They began to join voter leagues, started to p ay taxes in record numbers, and served on war-related boards and councils. Thus increasing black presence in the community they were able to successfully support the appointment of two black police officers into the city police force.  [48]  In the 1940s number of black voters increased from 151,000 to 9000,000.  [49]  By the late 1940s, black candidates were running for public office and occasional winning. In Northern sates, ideology of the war combined with increasing political power of urban blacks, led to the implementation of civil rights laws in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Most of these laws promoted fail employment practices and open public accommodations, and some went far as forbidding segregation in public schools.  [50]  The challenges to Jim Crow that existed prior to war and during was beginning to bear results. There were desegregation of the Montgomery police force, elevators of buildings in Birmingham, juries in Little Rock, department stores and pub lic facilities in Greensboro, public libraries, parks, and swimming pools in Louisville. All in the early 1950s before Brown. Rapidly increasing challenges to Jim Crow such as these during and after the war suggests that Brown was not the first to challenge racial beliefs in the society. Much of the legitimization of civil rights causes, that was perceived as an indirect action of Brown, can be explained through these things mentioned above. Political, economic, and social factors that caused these overall laid much of the groundworks for the civil rights movement. Conclusion After more than five decades it is still difficult to determine the exact role Brown played in paving the way for the civil rights movement in the 1960s. Many scholars claim that indirect influences of Brown played a major role in laying groundworks for the civil rights movement. Other scholars claim that Brown itself was caused by many powerful postwar forces. Most scholars agree that there were three main indirect influences: Brown increased civil rights issues in a national context, caused the Northern whites to feel guilt, and legitimized civil rights issues in the eyes of grassroots activists. After examining the evidence surrounding these indirect influences it seems that they did not contribute much to laying groundworks for the civil rights movement. Evidence suggesting post war forces contributed to the civil rights movement is most plausible. As to question of Browns role in paving the way for the civil rights movement, it is evident that Brown played a relatively small role compared to that of post war forces. Brown itself can be seen as a reflection of swelling postwar forces. These forces since the 1940s have increased optimism in the society and weakened racist beliefs. It is acceptable to claim that Brown did contribute to the civil rights movement. However Browns contributions were dwarfed by those of postwar forces.

Crohns Disease Essay examples -- Health, Chronic Inflammation

When someone first finds out they have Crohn’s disease, they will probably feel overwhelmed. There are so many questions. Will I be able to work, travel and exercise? Should I be on a special diet? Could my medications have side effects? How will Crohn’s disease change my life? The better informed they can become, the more equipped they will be to be an active member in your healthcare (Crohn’s & Colitis Foundation of America, 2009). Crohn’s disease is a chronic disorder of the digestive system. I can affect any area of the gastrointestinal system from the mouth to the anus. Its inflammatory process may spread to include skin, eyes, joints, mouth and sometimes the liver (Chang, 2008). Males and females appear to be affected proportionately. Crohn’s disease can occur in people of any age, but it is mostly a disease of adolescents and young adults. However, Crohn’s disease may occur in people over 70 years old and in young children (Crohn’s & Colitis Foundation of America, 2009). â€Å"Crohn’s disease appears to be caused by a dysfunctional inflammatory response in the gastrointestinal tract† (U. S. News, 2009). Inflammation is the body’s natural way to heal by sending immune cells to the site of the injury or invader. Researchers think that this immune system response may be triggered by bacteria or viruses, material in the intestinal contents, or a defective signal from the body’s own cells, called an autoimmune response. Inflammation results in pain, heat, redness, and swelling of the tissue. Chronic inflammation can harm the function of tissues and organs (U.S. News, 2009). Crohn’s disease also appears to affect certain ethnic groups more than others. American Jews of European descent are four to five times more likely to de... ...rica, 2009). Florida Gator P/ David Lerner was just recently diagnosed with Crohn’s disease. He was ready to start practice season when he was diagnosed. Lerner was about to become the starting punter for the Gators and he thought this would probably derail him. After consist treatment the disease was under control, but not gone. He was able to start for the team, and earn a scholarship. Lerner states, â€Å"Maybe I can’t eat a couple of things here and there that I want to eat, but at the end of the day, it’s really not the worst thing in the world†(Washington Post, 2011). People with Crohn’s disease accept their condition differently. Each person with the disease must adjust in their own way, but they must adjust. Even though there is no cure at this time, research is ongoing and promises to improve the health and quality of life for those with Crohn’s disease.

Trading Route Implications of Widening Panama Canal

ABSRACT The Panama Canal Authority is responding to the necessity to accommodate larger ships through the canal; a 5. 2 billion dollars investment to deepening and widening the canal is in place and expected to conclude on August 2014. The new infrastructure will affect today shipping dynamics and only a few ports on the East Coast of the United States will be ready to receive the post-Panamax vessels; in this document we will discuss what the Miami (FL), Jacksonville (FL) and Freeport TX) are doing to get ready. Trade Route Implications of Widening the Panama CanalThe Panama Canal is about to celebrate its 100 years operations with a 5. 2 billion expansion that will allow a more efficient transit from the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean; the expansion includes deepening and widening the entrances & navigation channels to allow 12,000 TEUs ships to pass; plus and an additional set of locks. Global changes are expected including higher volume of goods from Asia to US and Canada; new market s opportunity for raw materials sourcing; cost-effective routes options and shorter times to mention some of them. Accenture, 2011,page 3 & 4). The US East Coast will be definitely impacted; different ports are already working on its expansions but we cannot tell by certain how, where and what type of impact will land for sure; the fact that larger ships will pass through the canal does not mean that they will stop on all ports or that the trade volume will increase and maintain. During a Seminar organized by the U. S.Department of Transportation – Federal Highway Administration; Rodolfo Sabonge, Vice President of Market Research and Analysis of the Panama Canal Authority explained that the principle east coast ports to be call for this larger ships are New York, New Jersey, or Norfolk. New York, New Jersey but they would have to work on the bridges issues; in the southeast ports of Charleston, Savannah and Houston where distribution centers are located; the West Coast of Flo rida is expected to be touch too to serve South Florida.All this port will face general challenges such as distributions center; connectivity infrastructure to concentrate, load and move the cargo inland; logistics where truck companies will be highly involved, equipment; railroads, inspection and security processes (Sabonge, October, 2009) In the same conference, Richard Wainio, Port director and CEO of the Tampa Port Authority mentioned that Florida, have 14 ports; four of them share the states’ trade: Tampa, Everglades, Miami and Jacksonville.The port of Tampa manages nearly 40% of the trade by tonnage in Florida and serves local markets; the Port is already planning to build and integrated a logistic center. Everglades & Miami are the largest container ports; while Jacksonville is a key and major player for the Canal Expansion. (Winio, October, 2009) The Port of Miami is already in process of expansion; and the following information is published in their website: â€Å"G overnor Rick Scott asked the Department of Transportation to allocate $77 million to the Port of Miami to deepen the channel to minus 50 feet so larger ships can gain access to the port.The Port’s Deep Dredge project is timed to coincide with the opening of an expanded Panama Canal in 2014, which will allow a new generation of larger cargo vessels to pass through the Canal† The dredge in the Port of Miami is expected to generate 30,000 new jobs and become the first port of call for post-Panamax vessels. â€Å"The deep dredge is critical to our future growth,† Port of Miami Director Bill Johnson said. â€Å"Port of Miami will be one of only three U. S. Atlantic ports to be at [minus] 50 feet when the expanded Panama Canal opens. (Dredging Today, 2012). Additionally, the construction of a tunnel to connect the Port and the I-395 is already in place to support trucks direct access and double port capacity. The US Department of Transportation granted 22. 7M to resto re and put in function the Coast Rail Yard in Hialeah which will provide direct access to the national rail system. â€Å"This is the type of infrastructure project that will pay permanent, long-term dividends, and provide a solid return on investment for Florida’s taxpayers,† said Mayor Alvarez. (Miami Port, 2012).On the other hand Freeport, Texas that has served the Gulf Coast for 100 years and its tanked 16th in the U. S for foreign tonnage; as describe in their website a well-built infrastructure for transportation via highway, railroad and intercostal will support the transit for post-Panamax vessels. (Port Freeport, 2012). The Marine Link online magazine published on September 13, 2011 that â€Å"the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) and Port Freeport in Texas established a strategic alliance today with the signing of a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)† that will promote and increase the trade between Asia and Gulf of Mexico of the U.S. ; the MOU has been sign ed for one year but renewable upon request. The MOU will play a key piece by allowing both parties to share information to promote market research, modernization and technological improvements in general. â€Å"This partnership was perfect for each of us because we are both interested in investing in infrastructure and growth. We each are building new facilities at a time when others are standing on the sidelines so it is only natural that we assist each other in the promotion of international trade in this hemisphere. This partnership is a win, win, for each of us. † said Pete Reixach CEO of Port Freeport† (para. 4). The Port of Jacksonville employs 23,000 people and impacts an additional 43,000 employees related to the port’s activity. The cargo activity generates 19 billion USD and as mentioned in their website its physical facilities include docks â€Å"docks and wharfs, cranes, a passenger cruise terminal, warehouses, paved open storage areas and road conne ctions to the public highway system† (Jacksonville Port Authority, 2012).On September 27, 2011 Paul Anderson, Jacksonville Port Authority CEO addressed his concerns in a communication â€Å"I have no doubt that US East Coast ports will soon be called upon to handle increased volumes but I harbor great doubt as to whether we — any of us — will be ready† (para. 2). Anderson mentions that Congress must act fast and focus on critical investment, prioritization and infrastructure for ports to continue its contribution. The TraPac Container Terminal has been affected in doubling its capacity due to the nations slow down; authorizations and processes.Also, Korean shipping company Hanjin has put in hold 200 million investments until they understand what the Government is planning to do and invest to be prepared for the post-Panamax ships. As Anderson said â€Å"these are our choices: get ready or lose† (para 10). Several considerations must be raised to und erstand the impact that the Panama Canal expansion will produce, how many deep water ports will be needed to serve post-Panamax ships? Which of those ports will be touched by the ships? How the trade patterns will change?How much are the investments require to serve the post-Panamax ships and what is the specific infrastructure require at each port and in land? How much is the Government willing to invest in infrastructure? Yes, we should accommodate to globalization; the cost and outcome are unknown yet. On the other hand; infrastructure such ports capacity, extra labor to improve productivity, facilities, equipment; technology and a good connectivity network for in land transportation and railroad are key to the success of these investments.To conclude, it looks that competition among the Florida coast ports will be hard; Tampa and Miami are getting ready and making its expansion; Jacksonville understand the needs of expansion but is raising very fair questions not only on the pro jects but to the Government capacity to respond and maintain infrastructure. Are taxpayer’s dollars’ worth the effort? I believe yes if we take quick action to the new requirements and get a clear understanding that we can afford the expansions. I believe the main question is; which port(s) in South Florida will have the final benefits? It will be interesting to find out in some years.References Accenture. (2011). A global operation game changer. The 2014 expansion of the Panama Canal. Retrieved from http://www. accenture. com/us-en/Pages/insight-2014-expansion-panama-canal. aspx Dredging Today (2012). USA: Miami Port dredging plan gets final environmental ok. Retrieved from http://www. dredgingtoday. com/2012/05/25/usa-miami-port-dredging-plan-gets-final-environmental-ok/ Jacksonville Port Authority. (2011). Anderson addresses Panama Canal expansion concerns. http://www. jaxport. com/about-jaxport/newsroom/news/anderson-addresses-panama-canal-expansion-concerns Marine Link. 2011). Panama Canal and Port Freeport (TX) sign MOU. Retrieved from http://www. marinelink. com/news/freeport-panama-canal340393. aspx Port Freeport (2012) Retrieved from http://www. portfreeport. com/about. htm Port of Miami. (2012). Deep Dredge Project. Retrieved from http://www. miamidade. gov/portofmiami/deep_dredge. asp Sabonge, R. , Wainio, R. , (2009) Proceedings from Talking Freight Seminar Series: The Panama Canal widening and implications for Gulf and Atlantic Coast ports. Retrieved from http://www. fhwa. dot. gov/planning/freight_planning/talking_freight/oct2109transcript. cfm

The Dash Familys Roles

The Dash Familys Roles The Dash Familys Roles The Dash Familys Roles By Mark Nichol The en dash is the oft-neglected middle sibling of the horizontal-line family of symbols that serve to connect words and numbers for various reasons. The em dash (- ) is the dashing member of the brood, used somewhat sparingly to indicate a sudden break in syntax- either to signal a shift in sentence construction, as here, or joining with a twin to frame a parenthetical word or phrase (just as a pair of commas would be used in the midst of a sentence or two parentheses would be employed anywhere). The smallest, the hyphen (-), is the busiest, indicating connections between words, such as when the phrase â€Å"highest scoring† is hyphenated to signal its combined modification of the word that follows in the phrase â€Å"highest-scoring player† or to link two numbers in reference to a score or vote. The en dash (–), however, sometimes steps in to take the place of the hyphen: It is employed when an open compound is part of the phrasal adjective, signaling that the entire compound, not just the last word in the compound, is linked to the next word, as in â€Å"Civil War–era artifacts† (rather than â€Å"Civil War-era† or â€Å"Civil-War-era†) or â€Å"Los Angeles–to–San Francisco flight† (rather than in â€Å"Los Angeles-to-San Francisco flight† or â€Å"Los-Angeles-to-San-Francisco flight†). Note, however, that open compounds need not be proper nouns, as this quip about an advertising agency with a name consisting of a sequence of initials demonstrates: â€Å"This alphabet soup–named firm helps get clients on the gravy train.† If a hyphen were used in place of an en dash here, the reference would (confusingly) be to a soup-named agency of an alphabet nature. (Also, some publishers, presumably for aesthetic reasons, employ en dashes in place of em dashes.) The other major function of an en dash, by the way, is to replace to to indicate a number range, as in â€Å"Answer quiz questions 1–10.† (Remember that because scores are not number ranges, a hyphen is the correct symbol for linking two totals.) In both types of usage, a hyphen is often erroneously employed in place of an en dash (though for the sake of simplicity, some publications, especially newspapers, deliberately avoid use of the en dash). Also, note that although both hyphens and en dashes are employed as minus signs, the minus sign is technically a distinct symbol that in formal publishing is set using a distinct code. In informal usage, an en dash, more equivalent in size to plus and equal signs than a hyphen, is preferable. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Punctuation category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:12 Signs and Symbols You Should KnowEmpathy "With" or Empathy "For"?45 Idioms About the Number One

Common Muslim and Arab Stereotypes in TV and Film

Common Muslim and Arab Stereotypes in TV and Film Even before the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, Arab-Americans, Middle Easterners, and Muslims faced sweeping cultural and religious stereotypes. Hollywood films and television shows frequently depicted Arabs as villains, if not outright terrorists, and misogynistic brutes with backward and mysterious customs. Hollywood has largely portrayed Arabs as Muslims, overlooking the significant number of Christian Arabs in the United States and the Middle East. The media’s racial stereotyping of Middle Eastern people has allegedly produced unfortunate consequences, including hate crimes, racial profiling, discrimination, and bullying. Arabs in the Desert When Coca-Cola debuted a commercial during Super Bowl 2013 featuring Arabs riding camels in the desert, Arab-American groups werent pleased. This representation is largely outdated, much like Hollywood’s common portrayal of Native Americans as people in loincloths and war paint running through the plains. Camels and the desert can be found in the Middle East, but this portrayal has become stereotypical. In the Coca-Cola commercial, Arabs appear backward as they compete with Vegas showgirls and cowboys using more convenient forms of transportation to reach a giant bottle of Coke in the desert. â€Å"Why is it that Arabs are always shown as either oil-rich sheiks, terrorists, or belly dancers?† asked Warren David, president of the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, during a Reuters interview about the commercial. Arabs as Villains and Terrorists There is no shortage of Arab villains and terrorists in Hollywood films and television programs. When the blockbuster â€Å"True Lies† debuted in 1994, starring Arnold Schwarzenegger as a spy for a secret government agency, Arab-American advocacy groups staged protests in major cities, including New York, Los Angeles, and San Francisco, because the film featured a fictional terrorist group called the â€Å"Crimson Jihad,† whose members, Arab-Americans complained, were portrayed as one-dimensionally sinister and anti-American. Ibrahim Hooper, then a spokesman for the Council on American-Islamic Relations, told The New York Times: â€Å"There is no clear motivation for their planting nuclear weapons. They are irrational, have an intense hatred for everything American, and that’s the stereotype you have for Muslims.† Arabs as Barbaric When Disney released its 1992 film â€Å"Aladdin,† Arab-American groups voiced outrage over the depiction of Arab characters. In the first minute, for example, the theme song declared that Aladdin hailed â€Å"from a faraway place, where the caravan camels roam, where they cut off your ear if they don’t like your face. Its barbaric, but hey, it’s home.† Disney changed the lyrics in the home video release after Arab-American groups blasted the original as stereotypical. But the song wasn’t the only problem advocacy groups had with the film. There was also a scene in which an Arab merchant intended to hack off the hand of a woman for stealing food for her starving child. Arab-American groups also took issue with the rendering of Middle Easterners in the film; many were drawn â€Å"with huge noses and sinister eyes,† The Seattle Times noted in 1993. Charles E. Butterworth, then a visiting professor of Middle East politics at Harvard University, told The Times that Westerners have stereotyped Arabs as barbaric since the Crusades. â€Å"These are the terrible people who captured Jerusalem and who had to be thrown out of the Holy City,† he said, adding that the stereotype seeped into Western culture over centuries and is found in Shakespeares works. Arab Women: Veils, Hijabs, and Belly Dancers Hollywood also has represented Arab women narrowly. For decades, women of Middle Eastern descent have been portrayed as scantily clad belly dancers and harem girls or as silent women shrouded in veils, similar to how Hollywood has portrayed Native American women as Indian princesses or squaws. The belly dancer and veiled female sexualize Arab women, according to the website Arab Stereotypes: â€Å"Veiled women and belly dancers are two sides of the same coin. On the one hand, belly dancers code Arab culture as exotic and sexually available. ... On the other hand, the veil has figured both as a site of intrigue and as the ultimate symbol of oppression.† Films such as Aladdin (2019), â€Å"Arabian Nights† (1942), and Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves (1944) are among a host of movies featuring Arab women as veiled dancers. Arabs as Muslims and Foreigners The media nearly always portray Arabs and Arab-Americans as Muslims, although most Arab-Americans identify as Christian and just 12 percent of the world’s Muslims are Arabs, according to PBS. In addition to being sweepingly identified as Muslims in film and television, Arabs are often presented as foreigners. The 2000 census (the latest for which data on the Arab-American population is available) found that nearly half of Arab-Americans were born in the U.S. and 75 percent speak English well, but Hollywood repeatedly portrays Arabs as heavily accented foreigners with strange customs. When not terrorists, Arab characters in films and television often are oil sheiks. Portrayals of Arabs born in the United States and working in mainstream professions, such as banking or teaching, remain rare. Resources and Further Reading: â€Å"Arab-Americans Protest True Lies.† New York Times, 16 July 1994. Scheinin, Richard. â€Å"‘Aladdin’ Politically Correct? Arabs, Muslims Say No Way ⠁  - Criticisms That Kid Movie Is Racist Takes Disney by Surprise.† Entertainment the Arts, Seattle Times, 14 Feb. 1994, 12:00 a.m. â€Å"Veils, Harems Belly Dancers.† Reclaiming Our Identity: Dismantling Arab Stereotypes, Arab American National Museum, 2011.

Discussion Question 13 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion Question 13 - Assignment Example There are various behaviors that I need to incorporate in my teaching such as cultivating a holistic mindset and internalizing professional ethical standards that are sensitive to cultural diversity. I will also need to engage in those activities that advance nursing education and science. This also means that I will need to exhibit discovery behaviors by developing and adopting scholarly materials and make sure that I am creative and persevering enough to cater for the needs of the rest. I am meeting this scholarship competency by being proficient in writing of proposals. I am also considering ingraining lifelong learning concepts and being focused on understanding how diverse people learn. I have also continued to ensure that I seek advanced teaching techniques in order to expand my theoretical intellect. In order to prepare nurse students, I ought to be an expert in my nursing skills. Therefore, in case I do not get an opportunity to complete this competency, I will meet it in future as an educator by making sure that I balance the time that I spend in academics with that spent improving my personal skills in both roles as a nurse and an educator. Finally, I will continue going for seminars, trainings, practice prospects, and workshops to ensure personal growth (Cash & Tate, 2008). Cash, P., & Tate, B. (2008). Creating a Community of Scholars: using a Community Development approach to Foster Scholarship with Nursing Faculty. International Journal of Nursing Education Scholarship, 5(1):

Pharmaceutical Treatment Options for Myasthenia Gravis Article

Pharmaceutical Treatment Options for Myasthenia Gravis - Article Example The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) has the distinction of being the first site of a defined autoantibody mediated neurological disease, namely myasthenia gravis (MG), which is due to autoantibodies to the acetylcholine receptor (AChR) (Vincent, 2002). Other targets at the NMJ include muscle specific kinase (MuSK) in MG patients without AChR antibodies. About 20% of MG patients with generalized disease in Europe, North America and Japan do not have AChR antibodies. These so called 'seronegative' MG patients can be divided into two groups: those with antibodies to MuSK and those without [AChR/MuSK seronegative MG (SN-MG) (Hoch etal, 2001). In normal neuromuscular transmission depolarization of the presynaptic nerve terminal produces an influx of calcium through voltage-gated calcium channels. Vesicles containing acetylcholine (ACh) then fuse with the presynaptic nerve terminal membrane. After release, ACh interacts with the acetylcholine receptor (AChR) on the muscle endplate surface. This opens the AChR channel, resulting in an influx of cations, largely sodium. Depolarization of the muscle surface produces an excitatory endplate potential, and if the endplate potential is of sufficient amplitude, muscle surface voltage-gated sodium channels are opened. This generates an action potential that eventually results in excitation-contraction coupling and muscle movement. ACh binds transiently to its receptor and then either diffuses from the neuromuscular junction or is hydrolyzed by acetylcholinesterase (AChE), providing a self-limited response to nerve depolarization. In MG, antibodies are directed against the acetylcholine receptors (AChR antibodies). AChR antibodies interfere with neuromuscular transmission through one of three mechanisms- First, some bind to the AChR cholinergic binding site, blocking the binding of ACh. Second, some AChR antibodies cross-link muscle surface AChRs, increasing their rate of internalization into muscle and reducing the numbers of available AChRs. Third, and perhaps most importantly, AChR antibodies that bind complement result in destruction of the muscle endplate, and a more long-lasting loss of AChRs. Drugs like acetylcholinestrase inhibitors nhibits AChE, increasing the amount of ACh available to interact with available AChRs, thus prolonging the action of Ach, and allowing muscle contraction. Pharmacological treatment Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors are the first pharmacological choice in the treatment of MG. Acetylcholinesterase is an acetylcholine-hydrolyzing enzyme which binds the overflowing acetylcholine in the neuromuscular junction, keeping the junction clean from excessive transmitter. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors bind to the acetylcholinesterase, inhibiting its action. Pyridostigmine is a more recent long-acting reversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors increase the amount of available acetylcholine in the neuromuscular junction. This leads to enhanced binding of acetylcholine to the diminished number of AChRs on the myasthenic muscle cell membrane, causing contractility improvement (Millard and Broom field, 1995) When additional pharmacological tre