Military history Essay Example for Free

Military history Essay You [Military professionals] must know something about strategy and tactics and logistics, but also economics and politics and diplomacy and history. You must know everything you can know about military power, and you must also understand the limits of military power. You must understand that few of the important problems of our time have in the final analysis, been solved by military power aloneJohn F. Kennedy (Quoted from â€Å"Winning the Peace the Requirement for Full-spectrum Operations† by Chiarelli and Michaelis (2005). Military history-just like any other form of history- can make or break you depending on how you use it. In US, for example, military battles and wars can be traced back to the 1700s when America was in the verge of attaining independence. From then onwards, there have been a series of wars-mainly in their conquest and colonization efforts. In other parts of the world, military history also faced variable evolutions that led to the utilization of different forms and strategies. All these wars can however be collectively summarized with the first and second world wars which saw direct or indirect participation of almost all countries from all over the world (Gabel, 1985, p. 1-85). It is from studying such rich history that current military professionals are able to have a relatively easy time when going about their vital schedules. These lessons can be in form of making improvements on already discovered fundamental concepts or alternatively, learning from past mistakes by avoiding them. Failure to positively learn comes with a bag-full of consequences; more aptly put in the words of John Santayana â€Å"Those who do not know history are doomed to repeat it. † In giving his contribution to this vastly debated subject, RAF (2010, p. 152) rhetorically asks that â€Å"If the study of history is so fraught with problems, and either so easy to get wrong or difficult to get right, depending on one’s view of the contents of the glass, why bother at all? † Well, so many answers-backed with evidences-have been advanced to support both ends of the debate. However, the focus of this paper is going to be on circumspectly highlighting the importance of studying military history-which most researchers amass as being vital-while partly highlighting its demerits. Before delving deep into why we should or should not study military history, it is inherent that we start by mentioning the importance of history as an entity in itself. It is from getting this background knowledge that we will be able to ardently address the issue of military history. Most scholars tend to heavily draw their knowledge from historical data; so they strongly commend the study of history in general. Others, on the other hand, either oppose it or support sparing use of historical sources. To the latter, history-more so the written type-is subject to people’s interpretations, understandings and opinions thus may be misleading in studies since it is not very accurate or reliable (RAF, 2010, p. 153). For example, Presher (1901) describes his views on America’s abuse of noncombatants in a Filipino village. To some historians, the abuse described here was not really abuse but just an exercise of power. Both views might therefore be very confusing to people trying to get the real picture of what happened during that time. According to RAF (2010, p. 153), the literature studied in history â€Å"Is inevitably extensive and, almost equally inevitably, much of it is impenetrable on first inspection. † This may also deviate from what is really meant. RAF goes ahead and advises that if we are to get the most accurate and precise representation of what happened, we need to study â€Å"In breadth, depth and arguably most importantly in a proper context. † We should also ensure that we focus on many sources from authoritative individuals so as to get facts rather than myths or fables which might be misleading (p. 152-156). For instance, The long shadow of little rock is a personal memoir of Daisy Bates which makes the writing authentic and credible as opposed to other military history records which are narrated from the perspective of hearsays. Just like any major area of human concern, the study of military history has its predefined language and concepts. Consequently, when studying military history, it is inherent that you familiarize yourself with jargons used here. For example, words like Strategic, operational, Tactical and Individual are used in military history to represent the realms of traditional history (Kagan (2006). It is also important to note that the studies should be conducted in an order. Haphazard studies tend to confuse rather than perform the fundamental functions of studying military history. Having said that, what really are the advantages of studying military history? Elementarily, RAF (2010, p. 157) documents that military history studies by military professionals offers entertainment, inspiration, information and pride to its students. Just by studying about the escapades of our historical heroes and villains in their military obligations, we are able to get entertainment since most of the stories are appalling. On top of that, we get informed from the in-depth descriptions of the war times. In With the Old Breed, Sledge (2001) grippingly describes the horrendous experiences at Peleliu and Okinawa while informing the readers of how difficult it was to survive during that time. In effect, someone studying the story gets informed and entertained at the same time. Murray Sinnreich (2006, p. 32) assert that â€Å"Military history helps provide the theoretical foundation for the science of war, and continues to do so even in an era of huge technological and social change. † Gabel (1985, p. 3) exemplifies this by talking of â€Å"clumsy, unreliable, difficult to operate† fight tanks that provided a basis for the formation of better tanks to be used in other wars. In another example to show how one piece of history laid theoretical foundation for another, Lupfer (1981, p. 8) says that: The Germans did not win the First World War and their strategic conduct of the war was often flawed. Yet, much value can be derived from their development of tactical doctrine, for the Germans developed and applied new tactical doctrine impressively in 1917 and 1918. Their tactical changes were systematic and thorough, for these changes in doctrine directly affected subsequent battlefield success. In addition, studying military history provides a platform for referencing by military professionals. Lupfer (1981, p. 8) articulates of changes made by the army of Germany courtesy of army’s high command—OHL. First, a defensive doctrine is adopted based on previous studies then later, an offensive strategy is adopted. In the long run, the German army succeeds in curbing their oppositions in the western fronts. According to Hanson (2007), military history also plays the irreplaceable role of reminding us happenings of the past and how the people back then contributed to our current state. The numerous documentations of the battles in the 1700s helps us not only to know the sacrifices endure for the achievement of independence but also reminds to be grateful and appreciative of all the villains who paved the way for the current freedoms in the U. S Moreover, military trainings only cover a small portion of the fundamental aspects involved in military education. Most scholars opinionate that military history helps in filling the knowledge void left by other forms of military education. Specifically, military history enhances practicability of military education which is crucial for the growth of military professionals. Hanson (2007) adds that â€Å"Democratic citizenship requires knowledge of war—and now, in the age of weapons of mass annihilation, more than ever. † It is for this reason that institutions that focus on military history are slowly-but steadily- rising in many nations. This is also evident with the various movies, shows and songs that currently tend to incorporate aspects of military history. Examples include award-wining movies like Troy and 300 among many others. In spite of being hugely debated by many researchers, Hanson-and a handful of other scholars-further opinionate that military history teaches us that war is not necessarily as bad as most people perceive it to be. So even though millions of people may get killed or innumerable properties may get destroyed, through war, we may get peace, freedom or even progress economically which is positive. In other words, war involves doing something bad with the hope that something good may come out of it. This can be exemplified with the outcomes of the vastly covered World wars (WWI and WWII); despite the numerous deaths and huge economic losses that resulted from them, the wars also pioneered dialogue which led to freedom and peace amongst the involved states. On the flipside, the study of war does not necessarily equate to advantages. Chiarelli and Michaelis (2005) support this statement by saying that â€Å"A gun on every street corner, although visually appealing, provides only a short-term solution and does not equate to long-term security grounded in a democratic process. † So in spite of peace being the ultimate target for wars, many wars end up with worse rivalry thus worsening the already bad situation. In instances where peace or freedom was not realized from the war, students who study the war may end up sucking in bad influence and negative lessons rather than the positive lessons that is targeted for them. It is also important to note that some people who study military history may get private information on some confidential issues which may pose a threat to those living around them. An example is chemical combinations of making a bomb landing in the hands of a terrorist. This poses a danger not only to people living around the terrorist but also on the country as a whole. Yet still, the study of military history can prove quite costly and risky. So many people currently focus on technological advancements, discovery of new drugs to solve the current diseases, making work easier through software among other things. I effect, very little time and attention is given to studying of past histories. The fact that history cannot be changed yet we can determine what becomes of our future makes even more people gutter the study of history while concentrating on current affairs as well as prospective forecasts. As a result, those who concentrate on studying military history mostly have to personally dig into their pockets so as to the studies as opposed to the millions of dollars donated daily towards new researches. In addition, those who study military history have to sometimes come to terms with poor hospitality and hostility from their subjects. In Dougherty’s (2005, p. 1) interview of historian and free-lance writer Robert Kaplan on his military research book Imperial Grunts: The American Military on the Ground, Kaplan reveals that he had to trail soldiers through inhospitable and volatile areas just to get an interview from them. In his studies, he visited Yemen, Iraq, Ethiopia and Philippines- who at the time of the interviews were quite unwelcoming thus making it difficult for him to get substantial information. Dougherty (2005, p. 1) further exemplifies these acrid conditions by saying that in order for Kaplan to get valuable information from the soldiers, â€Å"He immerses himself in their world, spending weeks and months living with soldiers in their quarters, joining their missions, eating, drinking, sweating, freezing, and sometimes starving, side-by-side with them. † Adding on to the demerits, Kagan (2006) says that the complex nature of military language which involves â€Å"Unit sizes and nomenclature, acronyms and abbreviations, typologies of military activity† may sometimes prove too multifarious and confusing to normal students (those without professional military knowledge). Dougherty (2005, p. 3-6) gets Kaplan to talk about the complex language that existed between the military sergeants, generals and commanders in their communication. In some cases, it was even a must for the military officials to know and communicate in other foreign languages. At such points, some meanings maybe distorted to those recording as well as those studying the history based on the various communication syntaxes and rules that govern different regions. Lastly, the proliferation in ways of solving disputes has lessened the use of military personnel by most countries. As of today, most disputes are solved through dialogues, courts and round-table negotiations by world superpowers. In effect, the study of military is only done by a few people who rarely dig deep into these annals of history. The many fundamental functions that military history provides are therefore slowly being corroded away by the ever increasing modern forms of conflict resolution. In conclusion, it is noteworthy to say that military history plays an important role in preparing soldiers for wars. It may not necessarily empower them but it offers them insights on how their opponents fight, their strengths, weaknesses, previously successful combat methods, what they should avoid among other vital details which are invaluable before going to war. On the other hand, military history should be used sparingly so as to avoid complacency by soldiers based on overconfidence. Aptly put in the words of Henry Kissinger (1978); â€Å"History is not, of course, a cookbook offering pretested recipes. It teaches by analogy, not maxims. It can illuminate the consequences of actions in comparable situations, yet each generation must discover for itself what situations are in fact comparable. † References Bates, D. (1987). T The long shadow of little rock. Fayetteville. P. 1 – 5, 43 – 76, 82 – 106. [64 pages] Chiarelli, P. W. , Michaelis, P. R. (July-August, 2005). Winning the peace: The requirement for full-spectrum operations. Military Review, p. 1 – 17. Dougherty, E. (2005). Warriors for Good: Interview with Robert Kaplan. Atlantic Unbound. Gabel, C. R. (1985). Seek, strike, and destroy: U. S. army tank destroyer doctrine in World War II. Hanson, V. D. (2007). Why study war? CITY journal. Retrieved May 18, 2010, from http://www. city-journal.org/html/17_3_military_history. html Kagan, F. W. (2006). Why military history matters. AEI Online. Retrieved May 18, 2010, from http://www. aei. org/outlook/24600 Kaplan, R. (October, 2005). Imperial Grunts: With the army special forces in the Philippines and Afghanistan—laboratories of counterinsurgency. The Atlantic Monthly, p. 84 93. Lupfer, T. T. (1981). The dynamics of doctrine: the change in German tactical doctrine during the First World War. Murray, W. , Sinnreich R. H. (2006). The past as prologue: the importance of history to the military profession. Google Books. p. 32. Presher, F. (1999). Private Frederick Presher describes the U. S. Army’s abuse of noncombatants in a Filipino village, 1901. Major Problems in American Military History. p. 230 – 231. RAF, P. W. G. (2005). XII. Why Study Military History? Defence Studies, 5(1), p. 151-164. Retrieved May 18, 2010, from http://dx. doi. org/10. 1080/14702430500097408 Sledge, E. B. (1981) With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and Okinawa. P. 55 – 10.

Construction Budget Over Runs and Late Project Completion

Construction Budget Over Runs and Late Project Completion Construction projects are graded very successful if the work is completed within budget and to the deadlines agreed in the specification. However, the sad truth is that not all projects are guilty of being successful. Many projects experience failure due to the uncertainties associated with construction projects which include weather, materials, equipment, money and profitability, disagreements between clients, contractors and sub-contractors, statutory regulations, economic and political issues and functionality and purpose. To prevent these failures from constantly occurring, the types of failures need to be addressed so future construction projects do not fall into the same category of unsuccessful Civil Engineering construction projects. It is clear that some of these failures occur regardless of careful planning due to uncontrollable conditions such as climate change, recession, delayed deliveries etc. Therefore addressing the controllable issues, contractors can incorporate the se problems into their specification. By understanding the issues from previous unsuccessful construction projects and correlating the failures, it will be easy to identify the common errors and try to eliminate them from future projects. The research will be based on unsuccessful construction projects by using data from case studies, books, the internet and journals. The constraints and limitation of this paper will depend highly on the data received and analysed by previous sources and their opinion. The paper will also focus on two main factors, budget over runs and late completion. Examples of Budget Over-runs and Late Completion Projects There are many construction projects which have Budget Overruns and Late Completion. A few examples of budget over-run and late completion projects are: Wembley Stadium Sydney Opera House Tfls Jubilee Line Wembley Stadium The Wembley Stadium was a renovation construction project which required the old stadium to be demolished and rebuilt. The main purpose of the new stadium was to increase the capacity of the stadium, be the new home of English football and also host other sports and national events. The original estimated cost of the stadium was  £757m. This value at completion soared to about  £798m. Multiplex (main contractor) reported about  £45m losses in the construction of the New Wembley Stadium. These losses arose due to factors which include: Weather Sub-contractor walkouts (Cleveland Bridge steel company walkout) Sub-contractor disagreements (trade union of workers walkouts) and Changes in design due to failures. Due to the above factors the completion date of the project was pushed back by about three months. [1, 2] Sydney Opera House The Sydney Opera House was built as a performing arts centre and was designed by Jà ¸rn Utzon. The original estimated cost to build the Opera House was AUS $7m in 1957 and expected to be completed in five years. The project was started in 1959 and the value escalated to a massive AUS $102m and was completed in 1973. Not only did the budget over-run to 15 times the original estimate, but it also took 14 years to complete, which is a very late completion. The main factor which affected this project was insufficient planning during the design stage This led to a series of errors during construction, which effectively caused a domino effect. Hence, increasing the cost and pushing back the completion date [3, 4]. Tfls Jubilee Line The London Underground Jubilee Line extension was to link Stratford and the Docklands to Westminster. This project was planned in 1989 and estimated to cost  £1.2billion. The construction started 1993 and expected to take four years. This however was not the case due to a series of setbacks. There are four major causes for these delays: The project was put on hold for 18 months to find funding The movement of the block signalling system caused delays The location of the O2 Centre (Millennium Dome) had not been established and Due to the collapse of Heathrow Express Tunnel, work was put on hold again. This caused many changes to the original design therefore causing the project to be completed in early 1999, which was a twenty months late completion. The cost also increased to  £3.5billion, an astonishing 70% budget over-run [5]. What Are Budget Over-runs? Budget Overrun can be simply defined as when the final cost of the project exceeds the original estimates [6]. In terms of construction, this means the actual cost of the project at completion minus the original tendered cost during the tendering stage. This therefore creates either a positive value or a negative value. If the value is positive, the project is within budget and has created a profit, if the value is negative, the project has created a loss and is referred to as a Budget Over-run. Why Do Budget Over-runs Occur and What Are The Causes? Budget Over-runs occur constantly in construction projects around the world. The main aim of any business (Construction Company) is to make money, however, it is very common in construction to hear companies reporting losses due to budget over-runs. If the project is completed within the budget specified, it can be graded a success. Therefore this is an ideal factor to use, to rate the success of a project. Budget over-runs occur due to many factors, which are sometimes split into two groups, controllable and extent of damages. The types of budget over-runs are caused by: The cost variations between clients and contractors and sometimes a third party e.g. project manager, consultant etc [7]. Poor estimation during tendering process Disagreements with Trade Union of Workers Climate change Late completion Changes in design etc. This shows that the slightest mistake or changes made could increase the cost of the project dramatically. Research carried out around the world on construction projects has shown that: [8] 9 out of 10 projects over-run Between 50 and 100% over runs were common There was a constant correlation of over-run projects for 70 years in each of the 20 nations and 5 continents surveyed. Average construction project costs are about 33%[9] Another source of research carried out by Jahren, et al [10] predicted that the factors which increased the chances of a budget over-run are: Project size Method of delivery Amount of competition Quality of contract documents and Interpersonal relations There have been predictions published in the User Guide (2005), which outlines the common factors which cause budget overruns. These are: Poor Project Management The project manager/management team is employed to control the entire development to run smoothly and efficiently from start to finish for the project. They may or may not cover the costing depending on the clients preference. If the project management is poor, it will create an effect on the entire project and in the User Guide (2005) it is listed as: Lack of planning and co-ordination Poor communication between members of the project team and the project sponsor Failure to identify problems and institute necessary and timely design and programming changes Lack of control over time and cost inputs Lack of end user involvement. Unexpected Ground Conditions The ground conditions on any construction site are key, if the ground is not tested prior to tendering, the costs could escalate out of control, in order to put it right. This effectively will be the contractors responsibility. Although trial pits and bore holes are used to get an idea of the ground conditions, the true site condition will not be exposed until full excavation. From the time the trial pits and bore holes are carried out to the time of excavation, the ground conditions may have changed. Changes in ground condition may cause a redesign and also cause problems for any machines and materials ordered to site. This therefore should be taken into account as these could increase costs. Shortage of Construction Materials When construction is at its peak development stage in a certain areas, locally ordered materials could be in great demand. Some materials maybe required but cannot keep up with the demand, hence causing delays to the project. These materials might be ordered from other areas of the world, but may cost substantially more as it will need to be shipped in and pushing back the completion date due to delays in material deliveries. Therefore to prevent any shortages occurring this will need to be anticipated and added to the cost to prevent budget overruns. Change in Foreign Exchange Rates If specific materials are unavailable in the local market, it will then need to be imported from overseas. This can cause a problem to the budget if there are dramatic changes in exchange rates. This unexpected exchange rate should be taken into account during costing as it will cause an increase in the budget. Inappropriate and/or Inexperienced Contractors Selection of the right contractor is another key decision. The contractor must be suitable for the project as some projects use a wide range of tenders who price the job. Although, the cheapest tender may be very inviting, it does not guarantee quality. The decision should be made on contractors experience, the contractors successful history of completing jobs on time and within budget and also the most competitive price. Research carried out by Yates et al (2003), the contractors tender which is 15% less than the Engineer, it is very likely there will be a budget over-run. The tenders reputation should also be consider. This could be key as some companies may fall into hardship and bankruptcy. This will delay the project considerably and also increase costs as most contractors tend not to takeover other contractors jobs in case of any problems which could arise during later construction. Natural Disasters/Events These are disasters or events which cause inevitable delays and therefore budget issues to the project. The types of disasters/events which may cause delays and cost implications are wars, riots, earthquakes, landslide, fire, political and economic issues, types of projectile, contamination and many other disasters/events. Underestimations Deliberate cost underestimating occurs in order to gain the job. This will result in the project not being completed and the client having to either increase the budget or retender, hence, causing budget over-runs. Research carried out by Fllyvbjjerg showed that big construction projects were common culprits to underestimation and therefore led to the statement, whatever the cause, almost all large public projects contain initial cost estimating errors that result in the need for increased funding to complete the projects'[8]. The underestimation has been split into four major topics by Fllyvbjjerg: Technical These are known as forecasting errors which are errors requiring changes because of imperfect techniques, honest mistakes, inadequate data, inherited problems in predicting the future and lack of experience on the part of forecasters. In this case, the errors occur between the budgeted estimation and the actual cost of construction. [11] Economical The economical issues are split into two groups, public interest and economic self interest. Public interest is where there are promoters and forecasters who underestimate the cost of the project on purpose to give public officials an incentive to cut costs to save public money. Economical self interest is used to create jobs for Engineers and construction companies and shareholders also get involved to make more money. The fact that shareholders get involved tends to influence the forecasting process and therefore makes an impression on the result. [8] Psychological This is known as appraisal optimism. Promoters and forecasters are held to be overly optimistic about project outcomes in the appraisal phase, when projects are planned and decided. [12] By making the cost seem lower than it should be, will effectively cause the budget to over-run. Political Political explanations interpret cost underestimation in terms of interests and power. The political issue arises on the fact that whether forecasters are intentionally biased to serve the interests of project promoters in getting projects started. This is key in order to start a project quickly, however, there is a legal and moral deception attached this form of underestimation [13]. Change and Variation Orders These are changes to the project and are not part of the outlined work during the agreement of the project. In construction, changes tend to be inevitable and will cause a disruption to the project deadline and also budget. These decisions are therefore discussed prior to any changes being made as it may not suit the client or contractor. Inflation The general definition of inflation in economics is the increase in prices and fall in the purchasing the value of money [14]. This means that if there is an inflation increase, the value of all parts of the project will increase e.g. material costs, machinery hire, wages etc, which in turn increases the budget. To avoid these extra costs, predictions of the market should be checked during the tendering process, by both client and contractors. Acceleration This is where there is a delay but the client demands the project to be completed by the contractor on time, before the completion date or before the agreed extension completion date. Delays Of Completion Time and Payments Delays of completion tend to equal delays of payments, this will cause interest rate repayments to escalate causing the alleged interest trap for both client and contractor. What Are The Overall Effects From Budget Over-runs? It is clear that budget over-runs occur continuously in construction projects around the world. There are many causes for these extra costs which have not been considered during the tendering process. This has caused a bad impression not only on clients but also contractors and end users. The effects on each party is as follows: The client loses faith in the construction industry but in-particular their consultants who are unable to deliver the project on time. This also leads to higher investment being required from the client. The consultants reputation is ruined as they have an inability to control the project budget therefore leaving question marks for winning new projects. Contractors do not make the profits anticipated and failure to complete the jobs leaves their reputation in tatters. The end user will effectively be the one paying the highest price in terms of buying/renting/leasing in order for the shareholders to cover their costs. Overall, its the construction industry that suffers as it causes major headlines in the media for the wrong reasons. Clients will be more cautious before investing in large scale projects which will cause a drop in the construction industry projects due to its feeble reputation. Many construction projects which are accepted by the client will come with a greater risk to the contractor. How To Prevent Future Projects From Budget Over-runs? To prevent future projects from being unsuccessful in terms of budget, the management of costs need to be broken down to show exactly where costs will be greatest and smallest. The estimating, scheduling, accumulating and analyzing costs, and implementing measures to correct construction costing must be adhered to strictly. This will prevent any failures in terms of budget. There is a three step process which can be employed during the planning stage through to the construction stage: Identify the scale of the project (in terms of quality, completion time and budget), Ensure scope is adhered to strictly (in terms of time and budget) Monitor and control the above 2 steps constantly till the completion of the project. A successful project is based on the project manager and contractor working hand in hand to get the greatest efficiency from a project and tend to be based on time, performance and cost. There are many types of key principles and actions which should be followed for a project to be labelled successful and a few are listed below [15]: Good project definition and sound business case, Appropriate choice of project strategy, Strong support for the project and its manager from higher management, Availability of sufficient funds and other resources, Firm control of changes to the authorized project, Technical competence, A sound quality culture throughout the organization, A suitable organization structure, Appropriate regard for the health and safety of everyone connected with the project, Good project communications, Well-motivated staff, Quick and fair resolution of conflict. Risks and uncertainties increase the budget of any project. Therefore, a 10% of the estimated cost contingency plan is usually inputted into many projects to prevent the project from delays and going over budget. Although 10% sounds fairly small, by adding other control systems to the project performance, this value could increase dramatically. However, a good project management costing is more desirable and efficient than a contingency plan. What are Late Completions? In construction projects a late completion is commonly referred to as the time between the actual deadline agreed, to the time the project is completed. This is commonly called a delay in construction and tends to have a major effect on the client, end user, contractor and shareholders. If delays occur in construction projects, the contractor will be subjected to: Additional/Extension time of completion, Immediate termination of contract, Reduced profit or A mixture of the above. This is not always the case, as some delays are not the contractors fault. The other parties involved in the construction stage are, clients, consultants and external influences e.g. suppliers, machinery, mother nature etc. Any delay will create problems between all/some of the parties involved. Why Do Late Completions Occur and What Are The Causes? Delays can be split into three categories, these are: Excusable Delays These are delays which are not caused directly or indirectly by the contractor and in turn the contractor is allowed an extension of time. The excusable delay can also be split into two parts, Excusable With Compensation This is where the contractor is delayed due to the actions of the client, and is given and extension of time and compensated with money for wasted time. An example is if client cannot access the site after the client has approved for the work to start. Excusable Without Compensation This is where the client and contractor cannot be blamed for the delays caused and the contractor is only given an extension of time. An example would be Mother Nature. Non Excusable Delays These are delays caused by the contractor or sub contractor and the contractor is not given any extensions. But the client may get liquidated damages. Concurrent Delays These are delays which occur at the same time. If, and only if two delays or more occur at the same time, then the contractor is entitled to an extension. Delays are caused by the members directly involved in the project and also members indirectly involved in the project. Research was carried out by Odeh and Battaineh (2002) and their finding showed that [17], Client Delays The client caused delays in terms of: Finance and Payments, Constantly Interfering, Indecisive Decisions on Design and Requirements, Very Unrealistic Forced Time Schedule, Minimal Experience of Construction Projects, Minimal Experience of Co-ordination and Communication, Very Poor Employment of Representatives, Inappropriate Feasibility Study. Consultant Delays The consultant causes delays in terms of: Poor Management/Management Team in general, Poor Management of the Contract, Lack of Preparation and Poor Drawings leading to Slow Approval of Drawings, Quality Assurance and Control, Improper Site Investigations and Slow Approval of Tests and Inspections, Poor Consultant Team with Minimal Experience. Contractor Delays The contractor causes delays in terms of: Poor employment of Sub-contractors, Poor Site Management, Inappropriate Construction Methods, Poor Planning including costs, time, budget etc, Terrible Decision Making during Construction, Inadequate Contractor Experience. Material Delays Material cause delays in construction projects in terms of: Overall Quality, Its Demand and Supply, Importing Materials, Inflation Rate of Materials, Late Delivery and Unreliable Suppliers Labour and Equipment Delays Labour and Equipment cause delays in construction projects in terms of: Labour Availability and Productivity, Skilled Labour Availability, Low motivation and morale, Strike Action and Absent Labourers, Equipment Demand and Supply, Frequent Breakdown and Maintenance of Equipment, Improper and Inadequate Equipment. Contract Delays Contract cause delays in construction projects in terms of: Constant Changing of Design, Mistakes and Discrepancies in Contract Documents, Different Party Relationship Breakdowns e.g. disputes, negotiations, breakdown in communication, improper organisation. External Delays External influences cause delays in construction projects in terms of: Climate and Weather Changes, Unexpected Ground Condition Changes, Regular Changes e.g. security codes, I.D.s etc, Complaints and Problems from Neighbours, Inflation of All Materials, War, Riots, and Other Conflicts, Slow Clearance of Site. How To Prevent Future Projects From Late Completions? There are many factors which cause late completions of construction projects. The delays can be caused by direct or indirect actions. Direct actions are delays which can be avoided as these tend to be made by the parties involved. Indirect actions are uncontrollable and therefore by minimising the direct actions, the delay can be kept to a minimum. Research carried out by Nguyen, et al. (2004) on project success factors in large construction projects in Vietnam, Aibinu and Jagboro (2002) on acceleration of site activities and contingency allowances, Koushki, et al. (2005) on what the minimization of time delays and cost overruns would require, and Odeh and Battaineh (2002) on recommendations for improving the situation of construction projects allowed for a table of thirty five methods to be created. These methods would show how to minimise/eliminate delays from construction projects.   Conclusion From the research carried out, it appears that Budget Over-runs and Late Completions are a common aspect of the construction industry. However, it is clear that not all Budget Over-runs and Late Completions are controllable and some are fabricated to seem as over-run and completed late due to the process of tendering. In appears that there is a connection between late completion and budget over-runs hence, these are key factors which need addressing. The most influential effects for over-running and late completion are delays, insufficient finances, loss of reputations and controversial decision making from clients, consultants and shareholders. It is therefore compulsory that all the above measures should be followed, but a few major recommendations must be adhered to in order to make sure the project is always successful. The major recommendations for all parties involved are, Client The client should make sure all finances and payments are available and paid on time, the feasibility study is well planned and accurate as possible, the client should be proactive in decision making and understand what is feasible and what isnt, and the client should recommended a deadline but allow for any anticipated delays. Consultant The consultant should have good people skills, understand the projects objectives and the clients obligations, any misunderstood/discrepancies should be ironed out prior to construction and during the construction stages, this will prevent any major changes required during construction. The management team should be more than adequate and have a good history in the field of the construction project, quality control and assurance procedures should be put in place along with potential disagreement solutions which could arise. Contractor The contractor should tender based on the actual job costs and not the minimum tender in order to gain the contract. The contractor should employ reliable sub-contractors which have a good history in terms of completion and quality, the contractor should have a good management history as well as a good reputation in the type of construction project.

The role of icts in addressing challenges in higher education

The role of icts in addressing challenges in higher education ABSTRACT One of the most common problems of using Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in education is to base choices on technological possibilities rather than educational needs. In developing countries where higher education is fraught with serious challenges at multiple levels, there is increasing pressure to ensure that technological possibilities are viewed in the context of educational needs. This paper argues that a central role of educational technology is to provide additional strategies that can be used to address the serious environmental and educational challenges faced by educators and students in higher education. The educational needs manifest in Indian universities include addressing general lack of academic preparedness, multilingual needs in English medium settings, large class sizes and inadequate curriculum design. Using case studies from one higher educational institution, this paper shows how specific and carefully considered interventions using ICTs can be used to address these teaching and learning concerns. These examples serve to demonstrate some ways in which teaching and learning may be enhanced when uses of educational technology are driven by educational needs. The paper concludes that design of educational technology interventions should be driven by educational needs within the context of a broader teaching and learning strategy which requires buy-in of both educators and learners. INTRODUCTION It has been suggested that information and communication technologies (ICTs) can and do play a number of roles in education. These include providing a catalyst for rethinking teaching practice (Flecknoe, 2002; McCormick Scrimshaw, 2001); developing the kind of graduates and citizens required in an information society (Department of Education, 2001); improving educational outcomes (especially pass rates) and enhancing and improving the quality of teaching and learning (Wagner, 2001; Garrison Anderson, 2003). While all of these suggest the potential impact of ICTs in education in general and India in particular, it is still difficult to demonstrate the potential of technologies in addressing specific teaching and learning problems faced by Indian higher education institutions. The thesis of this paper is that the potential of ICTs is sandwiched between increasing pressure on higher education institutions from government to meet the social transformation and skills needs of India, and the varying student academic preparedness, large class sizes and multilingualism currently experienced in these teaching and learning contexts. Our thinking aligns with others (such as Kirkup Kirkwood, 2005; Wagner, 2001) who argue that it is the contextualized teaching and learning needs that ought to drive the ICT intervention, rather than the technology itself. In India, contextualization of teaching and learning requires a tightrope walk between higher education imperatives and social-cultural context of the educational landscape. This paper illustrates by means of examples drawn from one higher education institution how educational needs can drive design of learning environments and technological use. The question driving this paper is: How may educational technology interventions address theteaching and learning challenges faced by Indian higher education institutions? We discuss the general and specific educational challenges. These challenges then provide a context for an ICT intervention framework which is described and examples of the use of this framework in curriculum projects are discussed. CHALLENGES FACING HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA General challenges Currently, higher education in India is under increasing pressure to meet the social transformation and skills needs of the new India (Kistan, 2002). At the same time it is under immense external and internal pressure to improve on its policy and delivery performance (De Clercq, 2002). One of the indicators of social transformation in education is increasing the demographic representation among graduates and reducing the demographic difference between student intake and graduate throughput. The National Higher Education Plan (2001) outlines the role of higher education institutions in the new India: The key challenges facing the Indian higher education system remain as outlined inthe White Paper: ‘to redress past inequalities and to transform the higher education systemto serve a new social order, to meet pressing national needs, and to respond to newrealities and opportunities (White Paper: 1.1). (Department of Education India,2001.) Furthermore, recent government policy has added pressure on higher education institutions by linking funding to throughput. In other words, unlike in the past when institutions were funded on the number of registered first year students, funding is now linked to graduate throughput. Improving efficiency and addressing the equity needs of the country raises conflicting challenges for higher education institutions (Scott, 2004: 1). These challenges are exacerbated by the fact that most students enter university under-prepared and therefore require more support to bridge the gaps in the required knowledge and skills (Paras, 2001). Furthermore, in 2005 quality assurance audits1 focusing on the institutional management of core functions of teaching and learning, research and community engagement were conducted at Indian higher education institutions. The challenge for higher education institutions is therefore not only about increasing throughput in terms of numbers and the diversity of i ts student population but also involves ensuring quality educational provision. The Indian government has identified the use of ICTs for teaching and learning as an important priority. For example, the e-Education policy states: Every Indian manager, teacher and learner in the general and further education andtraining bands will be ICT capable (that is, use ICTs confidently and creatively to helpdevelop the skills and knowledge they need as lifelong learners to achieve personal goalsand to be full participants in the global community) by 2013. (Department of EducationIndia, 2004: 17) Thus, the ultimate goal of the policy is the realization of ICT-capable managers, educators and learners by 2013. Read together with the National Higher Education Plan, these two policies have ramifications for instructional designers, educators, students and researchers. The underlying argument of this paper is that the realization of the policys goals largely depends on the extent to which current educational challenges are re-conceptualised in the context of the role that ICT can play in teaching and learning. The current focus on teaching and learning coupled with growth in educational technology in Indian higher education institutions (Czerniewicz et al., 2005: The role of ICTs in higher education in India61) requires that we begin to ask questions about the ways in which educational technology contributes to addressing the educational challenges in the new India. As is the case in higher education globally, Indian higher education is under pressure to increase participation fro m diverse groups of students and to produce the skills required for a rapidly changing society. In the UK, for example, participation in higher education has increased since the 1940s but participation of higher socio-economic groups still exceeds that of lower socio-economic groups (DFES report, 2004). While similar, these challenges take particular forms given Indias unique history. For example, global disparities are defined in terms of class; in India the educational disparities are manifested along racial lines due to the political, economic and social policies of the pre-1994 era. Redress of marginalised groups and social transformation is therefore central to the policies of post-1994. The Indian government has made it clear that one of its aims is to achieve equitable access to higher education for previously disadvantaged learners, with diverse educational backgrounds (Hardman Ngambi, 2003). Education is viewed as one of the key mechanisms of achieving social transformation. It is in this educational context that new opportunities for educational technology have arisen. Although we are aware that educational challenges demand multi-pronged approaches, which may include both traditional teaching approaches and innovative non- digital instructional designs, it is the role of educational technology that is the focus of this paper. Specific teaching and learning challenges The major teaching and learning challenges facing higher education revolve around student diversity, which includes, amongst others, diversity in students academic preparedness, language and schooling background. Teaching and learning in higher education in general can largely be characterised as follows: [] instruction that is too didactic, a lack of personal contact between teachers andstudents and among students, assessment methods that are inadequate to measuresophisticated learning goals and too little opportunity for students to integrate knowledgefrom different fields and apply what they learn to the solution of real-world problems.(Knapper, 2001: 94) Teaching and learning in Indian higher education fits the above description but in addition it has to contend with deep-rooted complex issues and problems stemming primarily from a previously racially divided and unequal education system. In addition, large classes are an endemic feature of most university courses posing an additional challenge in the teaching of a diverse student population. Indian higher education institutions are faced with a myriad teaching and learning challenges. In this paper we focus on a few of these: academic preparedness, multilingulism in a first language context, large classes and inadequate curriculum design. In the next section, we look at ways in which ICTs have been used to respond to these challenges at one Indian higher education institution. Academic preparedness Students from disadvantaged educational backgrounds as well students from privileged backgrounds generally enter higher education with gaps in the knowledge and skills required for studying particularly in key areas such as mathematics (Paras, 2001, Howie Pietersen, 2001) and science. Given the pressure to increase the diversity of the student population of Indian higher education, assessing students potential for success in higher education has gained increasing importance, particularly since the school-leaving certificate is currently viewed as an inadequate measure of a students potential for success in higher education. In a country such as India, for instance, school-leaving certification has had aparticularly unreliable relationship with higher education academic performance especiallyin cases where this certification intersects with factors such as mother tongue versusmedium-of instruction differences, inadequate school backgrounds and demographicvariables such as race and socio-economic status (Yeld, 2001; Badha, et al, 1986;Scochet, 1986; Potter Jamotte, 1985). (Cliff et al., 2003) Alternative placement tests have therefore been used in conjunction with school-leaving certificates to admit students with potential into higher education studies (Cliff et al., 2003). Consequently, many of these students may be under-prepared in that they may not possess the necessary language or mathematical proficiencies required for higher education or may have gaps in the foundational disciplinary knowledge. Furthermore, university tasks present challenges for under-prepared students (Hardman Ngambi, 2003). Although support programmes to address academic under-preparedness of students from both advantaged as well as disadvantaged groups are offered at many Indian higher education institutions, they are resource intensive. It is therefore worth paying attention to additional resources and expertise offered by educational technology. Multilingualism in a first language environment India is a multilingual society with 11 official languages. This diversity is reflected in the student population of Indian higher education institutions. A recent study by Czerniewicz Brown (2005) on higher education students and academic staffs access to and use of computers in five Indian universities found that 39% of respondents spoke English as a home language and 54% spoke other languages. At the University of Cape Town, on average 65% of the student population declared English as their first language while 35% have home languages in the other Indian official languages and other international languages (Spiegel et al., 2003). English is therefore a second or foreign language for many Indian higher education students. In most black Indian schools, English as a subject is taught as a second language. Higher education students from disadvantaged educational backgrounds therefore have to learn in their second or third language. A considerable body of research (Cummins, 1996; Gee, 1990) has shown that language and academic success are closely related and that academic language proficiency is far more difficult to acquire in a second language. Students learning in their second or third language are therefore at a disadvantage which is compounded by poor schooling background. The relationship between language and academic success is reflected in the throughput rates of English second language students when compared to the throughput rates of English first language students. At the University of Cape Town, for example, the difference in throughput rates between English first language and second language students in 2002 was more than 20% in several degrees/programmes (Spiegel et al., 2003). Large classes The growth of mass higher education has made large classes an endemic feature of several courses at higher education institutions. Large class sizes make it difficult for teachers to employ interactive teaching strategies (Nicol Boyle, 2003) or to gain insight into the difficulties experienced by students. Large classes pose problems for all students but students who are under-prepared are particularly affected. It is these contexts that provide useful opportunities for educational technologies. Curriculum design Curriculum design is a relatively under-engaged area within higher education debate, policy formulation and practices (Barnett Coate, 2005). Pressure to transform curricula at a macrolevel to the needs of industry and the economy in India is reflected in the National commission on higher educations policy framework (1996) for higher education transformation. There is a strong inclination towards closed-system disciplinary approaches andprogrammes that has led to inadequately contextualised teaching and research. Thecontent of the knowledge produced and disseminated is insufficiently responsive to theproblems and needs of the African continent, the southern African region, or the vastnumbers of poor and rural people in our society.In response to policy intentions, Indian higher education has implemented a curriculum restructuring policy aimed at the development of inter- or multidisciplinary degree programmes (Moore, 2003). While policy has resulted in curriculum shifts on a macro le vel, curricula contents at a micro-level are driven by disciplinary specialists. Undergraduate curricula remain predominantly theoretical but require that students have some knowledge of the contexts to make sense of theory. In this paper, we are concerned with the way in which ICTs can play a role in shaping curriculum design at the micro-level. ICTs open up new ways of accessing information thereby changing the relationships between students and between students and their teachers. Access to primary sources in the form of video, audio and photographs which may be contained in digital archives have the potential to influence the content of curricula because it makes previously inaccessible information available. In addition, ICTs enable lecturers to transform their teaching practices by facilitating student-student discussion and collaboration or by simulating ‘real-world problems thus providing students with authentic learning experiences. In this section, we discussed some of the teaching and learning challenges experienced by educators and students in higher education. In the next section, we examine the role of educational technology in responding to these challenges and provide some examples. RESPONDING TO THE CHALLENGES Since the teaching and learning challenges are multi-faceted, multi-pronged approaches are needed in order to attempt to solve some of these problems. Dede (1998) postulates: [] information technology is a cost-effective investment only in the context of a systemicreform. Unless other simultaneous innovations in pedagogy, curriculum, assessment, andschool organization are coupled to the usage of instructional technology, the time and effortexpended on implementing these devices produces few improvements in educationaloutcomes and reinforces many educators cynicism about fads based on magicalmachines. We infer from Dede that there are several inter-related factors that influence improvements in educational outcomes. Thus together, pedagogy, curriculum, assessment and organisation contribute to bringing about improvements in the educational process. Although educational technology is not the panacea for educational challenges, it does leverage and extend traditional teaching and learning activities in certain circumstances and hence has the potential to impact on learning outcomes. Knapper (2001) argues that: [] technology may be a good solution for some instructional problems, and in some casesit may be a partial solution. But in other instances technology does little to address thefundamental teaching and learning issue or even worse provides a glitzy butinappropriate solution to a problem that has simply been misconstrued. (Knapper, 2001:94) The trick is to identify situations where educational technology will be appropriate and when and how to use educational technology in these situations. There are times where technology may not be useful and may indeed be counter-productive. However, there are many times when educational technology offers a solution for problems that would be difficult, cumbersome or impossible to resolve in a face-to-face environment. Numerous manuals, websites and articles have been devoted to suggesting, explaining and modelling the ways that educational technology can be used to support teaching and learning. We agree with Laurillard (2001) that it is important that educational technology-based resources be appropriately matched to both teaching and learning activities. Table 1 adapted from Laurillard (2001) usefully explains how educational technology can be integrated into the curriculum. Laurillards guidelines are useful in that they provide a framework which relates ICT-based resources to particular teaching and learning activities. The guidelines therefore suggest particular uses of ICT for particular teaching and learning situations. The effectiveness of ICTs for teaching and learning, however, is largely dependent on how much the context is understood. Thus, there is a need to relate educational technology to actual challenges experienced by both students and lecturers in the Indian educational context. OHagan (1999) suggests that educational technology can be used to present and provide content, assess students learning, provide feedback, scaffold student learning and enable peer-to-peer collaborative learning. The choice of appropriate teaching and learning activities is dependent on a range of factors such as the curriculum or course objectives; i.e. the purpose of the teaching and learning, the educators preferred teaching approach, the learning styles of the student and the nature of the curriculum content. Although we advocate that teachers should use the teaching approach that suits their paradigm of teaching and learning, we believe that the use of educational technology provides teachers with opportunities for traversing an entire continuum of possibilities as may be appropriate to their teaching needs. Educational technology creates affordances for a range of different teaching and learning activities which the teacher may not have used or considered. Table 1: Teaching and learning events and associated media forms Responding to the challenges: examples from curriculum projects The affordances of educational technologies provide ways of being sensitive to wide-ranging and differing learning needs. In this section, we describe some curriculum projects that have attempted to respond to some of the educational challenges faced by students at the University of Cape Town (UCT). For the sake of brevity only overviews are provided. Using interactive spreadsheets to develop mathematical literacy skills As discussed above, many under-prepared students entering university have potential but do not possess the relevant mathematical literacy skills required for certain courses (Frith et al., 2004). These students are often expected to pursue an extended undergraduate degree programme that offers additional support to address mathematical literacy skills. In this case, the teaching challenge is that of finding ways of developing students mathematical literacy skills. Selfcontained interactive spreadsheet-based tutorials were developed for use on the mathematical literacy support courses at UCT and were used in conjunction with face-to-face lectures. A typical tutorial consisted of interactive presentation of relevant mathematics content, examples and exercises. Students were able to work at their own pace and receive immediate feedback. Frith et al. (2004: 163) found that ‘while the lecture room tutorial taught students how to calculate the various statistics, the computer tutoria l was more effective in giving them an understanding of the concepts and they retained better what they had learned. This effect, they argue, is possible due to the shift in emphasis in the computer-based tutorials away from mechanical calculations to demonstrating conceptual understanding. This curriculum project illustrates how educational technology was used to complement teaching and learning and to support the development of students mathematical literacy skills. Using educational technology to develop academic literacy in an economics course Economics at university level poses particular difficulties for students since lecturers assume prior knowledge of the economy. Unfortunately, many students from previously disadvantaged communities have very limited knowledge of the economy at the start of their university careers. Under-prepared first year students encounter further difficulties due to a lack of academic literacy skills. The Industry Research Project (Carr et al., 2002) was designed to address economic literacy while simultaneously dealing with language and communication skills of UCT economic students. Interactive excel spreadsheets in conjunction with short writing tasks in the form of online discussions, short essays, reports and presentations were used in academic development economics courses at UCT. These tasks or activities provided a range of opportunities for students to develop understanding of economic discourses through writing in economics. Although Carr et al. (2002: 5) found it difficult to measure t he impact of these tutorials, which formed a small part of the first year economics curriculum, they observed that the interactive spreadsheets were effective teaching tools in that tutors were able to focus students attention on economics issues rather than procedural issues and that the quality of articles produced by students improved due to the online feedback provided during the process of drafting articles online. This curriculum project demonstrates the use of educational technology in conjunction with face-to-face activities in addressing students academic literacy skills. Using educational technology to manage tutorials in large classes Commercial-Off-The-Shelf (COTS) based tutorials system called MOVES were developed around Excel and Word to teach computer literacy to first year Information System students at UCT. MOVES incorporated computer-assisted marking techniques and provided feedback to lecturers and students. The significance of this project is that it typifies the problems of teaching a large and diverse class. The computer literacy levels of these students are diverse, with some students not havingtouched a computer before to students who have had home computer and internet facilitiessince the age of five. The immediate challenge this diversity poses on teaching is that it isnot practical to pitch the lecture at an appropriate level to meet all students at their level ofknowledge. The other challenge is in providing feedback messages that are relevant anduseful to individual students. (Ngambi Seymour, 2004: 255). Ngambi and Seymour (2004: 257) report that the MOVES tutorials saved time for tutors since tutorials were marked and results captured electronically, lecturers had access to student performance and students found the immediate feedback useful in that misconceptions could be dealt with immediately. The significance of this project is that it illustrates how educational technology is used to facilitate teaching and learning in large classes. Influencing curriculum design Many university courses are theory driven and assume that students have knowledge or real world experience and can therefore make the links between theory and practice. Students often have limited experience or practical knowledge and therefore have difficulty in understanding theory. Deacon et al. (2005) report on the use of educational technology to simulate film editing. The Directors Cut was produced and used in a Film and Media course at UCT to provide students with insights into the practical processes involved in filmmaking without engaging in the actual process of editing. Exposing students to actual editing is expensive and impractical in a large course. The intervention provided individual students with an authentic learning environment through a simulation. Students sequenced film clips, hence simulating the role of an editor through a simplified version of the editing process. In this way, the focus is on key learning aspects of film narrative and spectatorship and linked theory to the ‘practice of film editing. Similarly, Carr et al. (2004) report on an International Trade bargaining simulation developed for an economics course where students assumed the role of national trade negotiators representing specific countries. Lecturers and tutors assumed the role of World Trade Organisation (WTO) officials in a semi-authentic process designed to teach students negotiation and bargaining skills similar to those required by professional trade negotiators. The two projects reported here exemplify ways in which educational technology was used to impact on the design of the respective curricula by providing students with experiences which are difficult to provide in face-to-face environments. CONCLUSION Indian universities face increasing pressure from government to meet the needs of social transformation in education. Indian government policy on social transformation in education requires increasing the representation of Black Indians and women among students and graduates and significantly improving the graduation rates and throughput of Black Indian students. Given the social-historical context of India, meeting the educational challenges associated with this noble goal requires re-conceptualisation of how educational technologies are applied so as to make an impact. The paper has proposed a model for teaching and learning activities that are associated with media forms. The model has been substantiated with examples of the application of educational technologies to teaching mathematical literacy, academic literacy, management of large classes, and ways of influencing curriculum design. Our argument is that technology alone is not a solution to the educational challenges faced in India. The challenges lie in identifying and conceptualising ways that educational technology can usefully contribute to student learning experiences, curriculum and pedagogical designs. The paper demonstrates and argues that educational technology has a key role to play in Indian higher education as one of the strategies for addressing teaching and learning concerns. This challenges learning designers to rethink the role of educational technology within broader educational interventions that are shaped by educational needs rather than being technologically driven.

Salt Marshes :: essays research papers

Oceanography  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Salt Marshes Salt marshes are coastal wetlands rich in marine life, which are covered by water at least once per month. They are found in the intertidal zones along low-energy coastlines, forming along the margins of estuaries, where freshwater from the land mixes with seawater. These marshes can be found near the Great South Bay and the Long Island Sound. The entire south shore of Long Island is considered to be a salt marsh important to the health of the marine life. Beginning in Jamaica Bay and extending to Montauk Point, Long Islands salt marches help remove toxic chemicals that are caused by pollution, thus making them a vital part of the eco-system. The Salt Marshes contain different types of grasses that grow out of the water and along the water's edge. This grass can be seen when the tide is low and is covered by water when the tide comes in. This grass helps hold the soil together by dispersing any wave energy and creating a breeding ground for many important marine animals. Also, the plants act as a natural filter, removing any chemicals that might be in the seawater. Some of the plants that are found in salt marshes are: Salt Marsh Grass or Spartina Alterniflora and Cord grass as well as reeds, sedges and golden rod. At low tide, nutrient-rich water flows from the marsh back into the sea, feeding the plankton upon which all other life depends. Peat, which is what the march is mostly made of, is very absorbent. In some areas, it limits coastal flooding by containing the water that comes in during a very high or storm-driven tide. Peat also acts as a filter, cleaning water by removing various compounds and either storing or breaking them down. The salt marsh is also an important breeding ground for many species of marine life. These animals use the marsh and its tall grasses for protection from predators. Some of the marine life is: clams, mussels, shrimp, oysters and small fishes such as killies and spearing. Some mammals use the salt marsh also. These animals include: mice, skunks and many, many species of water fowl. These animals use the marsh not only as a home, but as a place to find food as well. There are destructive forces at work against the salt marsh. While a slowly rising sea level has had some effect, the greatest destruction of salt marshes that has taken place is urban and suburban development. Salt Marshes :: essays research papers Oceanography  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Salt Marshes Salt marshes are coastal wetlands rich in marine life, which are covered by water at least once per month. They are found in the intertidal zones along low-energy coastlines, forming along the margins of estuaries, where freshwater from the land mixes with seawater. These marshes can be found near the Great South Bay and the Long Island Sound. The entire south shore of Long Island is considered to be a salt marsh important to the health of the marine life. Beginning in Jamaica Bay and extending to Montauk Point, Long Islands salt marches help remove toxic chemicals that are caused by pollution, thus making them a vital part of the eco-system. The Salt Marshes contain different types of grasses that grow out of the water and along the water's edge. This grass can be seen when the tide is low and is covered by water when the tide comes in. This grass helps hold the soil together by dispersing any wave energy and creating a breeding ground for many important marine animals. Also, the plants act as a natural filter, removing any chemicals that might be in the seawater. Some of the plants that are found in salt marshes are: Salt Marsh Grass or Spartina Alterniflora and Cord grass as well as reeds, sedges and golden rod. At low tide, nutrient-rich water flows from the marsh back into the sea, feeding the plankton upon which all other life depends. Peat, which is what the march is mostly made of, is very absorbent. In some areas, it limits coastal flooding by containing the water that comes in during a very high or storm-driven tide. Peat also acts as a filter, cleaning water by removing various compounds and either storing or breaking them down. The salt marsh is also an important breeding ground for many species of marine life. These animals use the marsh and its tall grasses for protection from predators. Some of the marine life is: clams, mussels, shrimp, oysters and small fishes such as killies and spearing. Some mammals use the salt marsh also. These animals include: mice, skunks and many, many species of water fowl. These animals use the marsh not only as a home, but as a place to find food as well. There are destructive forces at work against the salt marsh. While a slowly rising sea level has had some effect, the greatest destruction of salt marshes that has taken place is urban and suburban development.

Eulogy for Grandfather :: Eulogies Eulogy

Eulogy for Grandfather My grandfather taught us so much. When my sister and I were little, he taught us how to paint with oils on smooth pieces of wood, instructing us on how to blend colors or make certain brush strokes, telling us that "there are no straight lines in nature," to help us paint better trees. He taught us how to work with clay, too, and made us our own clay-working tools. He taught us how to roll pennies from the piggy bank he'd fill up every week. He taught us about the birds flying into the birdfeeder next to the family room window. He taught me about words, too, in one memorable exchange advising me to use the words "equine posterior" rather than their more common alternative. But most of what my grandfather taught us he taught us indirectly, without speaking. Going to museums with him was often a chore for me as a kid, because he would have to stop and read every plaque next to every painting or item, every so often calling us back to something we'd tired of already to explain what he'd just learned-but mostly, just observing, drinking in everything he could see with quiet patience. He never went to college, but he taught me more about education-and the value of being a self-educator-than I could learn in any school. My grandfather made miraculous things with lumps of clay and blocks of wood. It wasn't until much later that I realized how well-outfitted his workshop was, full of specialized tools; he'd taught my father how to be the same kind of hands-on man, and I thought all Grandpas and Dads had special lathes, band saws, table saws, jig saws, buckets of nails, vast arrays of screwdrivers and dozens of varieties of sandpaper in their basements. One birthday, I remember, he made special. After we'd unwrapped our other toys, my sister and I were presented with identical boxes with the Hallmark logo on them. They were presented with great ceremony, and we were confused but excited. We opened them at the same time. Inside my sister's box was a diorama of our dog Lady playing with a soccer ball out on the lawn. Her back paw was stomping tiny silk flowers into garden dirt rendered in sawdust. Mine was a black horse leaping over a stone wall-perfect down to the textured wood that formed the rock. Eulogy for Grandfather :: Eulogies Eulogy Eulogy for Grandfather My grandfather taught us so much. When my sister and I were little, he taught us how to paint with oils on smooth pieces of wood, instructing us on how to blend colors or make certain brush strokes, telling us that "there are no straight lines in nature," to help us paint better trees. He taught us how to work with clay, too, and made us our own clay-working tools. He taught us how to roll pennies from the piggy bank he'd fill up every week. He taught us about the birds flying into the birdfeeder next to the family room window. He taught me about words, too, in one memorable exchange advising me to use the words "equine posterior" rather than their more common alternative. But most of what my grandfather taught us he taught us indirectly, without speaking. Going to museums with him was often a chore for me as a kid, because he would have to stop and read every plaque next to every painting or item, every so often calling us back to something we'd tired of already to explain what he'd just learned-but mostly, just observing, drinking in everything he could see with quiet patience. He never went to college, but he taught me more about education-and the value of being a self-educator-than I could learn in any school. My grandfather made miraculous things with lumps of clay and blocks of wood. It wasn't until much later that I realized how well-outfitted his workshop was, full of specialized tools; he'd taught my father how to be the same kind of hands-on man, and I thought all Grandpas and Dads had special lathes, band saws, table saws, jig saws, buckets of nails, vast arrays of screwdrivers and dozens of varieties of sandpaper in their basements. One birthday, I remember, he made special. After we'd unwrapped our other toys, my sister and I were presented with identical boxes with the Hallmark logo on them. They were presented with great ceremony, and we were confused but excited. We opened them at the same time. Inside my sister's box was a diorama of our dog Lady playing with a soccer ball out on the lawn. Her back paw was stomping tiny silk flowers into garden dirt rendered in sawdust. Mine was a black horse leaping over a stone wall-perfect down to the textured wood that formed the rock.

Marketing Mix Apple Essay

In the economy, the marketing has an important position which decides almost the success of the company or the brand. Most of well-known brands in the world also have a good marketing plan; Apple is the best example for having excellent marketing strategies. In this essay, the marketing mix strategy of Apple will be discussed to understand how Apple makes their high value in more details. The first thing to take account into marketing mix strategy is the product. As already known, Apple is an American multinational corporation headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sell consumer electronics, computer sofware, and personal computers. Apple provides the customer a wide range of product that covers many field of technology. For instance, the most special invention of Apple is Apple Macintosh, they have many kinds of Mac with many different size and options of configuration. Moreover, IPod was known as the first mp3 player of the world. It is not only the mp3 player but also the symbol of music fashion. Until now, IPod still affects gradually to market of mp3 players. In addition, in the last five years, Apple has created new-brand market for smartphone with their special product – IPHONE. From IPhone 2G, 3G, 3Gs, 4G, 4Gs to 5G, IPhone always make a big wave to the technology world. That proves products of Apple always have strong range to the technological market. What is more, another invention of Apple that also makes a new move of technology is IPAD. It leads for a new century of tablet. Now IPad may be known as the best tablet in many customers’ s mind. Beside that, Apple gives their customer many other products such as iTunes, accessories, and service. Second, price also is important part of marketing mix strategy. The price of all products of Apple is now low compared to their competitor’s product’s price but there is a reason for this issue. Apple is the premium brand that does not compete on price. They may dominate the market even though their price may be quite high in some countries. Generally, Apple is proud that their products is union between technology and liberal arts so they not just sell products, they sell art. IPhone, Ipad, and IPod also are symbol of fashion. In conclusion, the price of Apple’s product is made for their customer’s value. The next is place. Apple’s headquater is located at Infinite Loop, Curpetino, California. They have over 200 retails around the world. Major cities have at least three big stores, more important, the customer not only purchase products but only can test them, receive supported imformation, and they may not buy products if they do not want. This is the key of success of Apple to satisfy their customer. Finally, promotion create difference of Apple’s marketing mix strategy. Apple just use launching new product to promote their products with their great ability of presentation of Apple CEO – Steve Jobs. Moreover, Apple does not join CES exhibition or any advertising. In addition, Apple made a big unchangeable symbol in customer, therefore, the customer always compare their product to their competitors’s prodcuts. It is indirect to promote for Apple. Beside that, the online Apple store offers free ship for the orders over $50, iTunes gift card, and special discount for refunished products. In conclusion, marketing mix strategy creates the brand of Apple. There is a wide range of product such as Iphone, Ipad, Ipod, and Mac with suiable price for their prenium brand. They have big network of great retail and unique promotion. Reference: www.wikipedia.com www.marketingteacher.com

Passion for Fashion Essay

Fashion plays an important role in the daily life of every individual. It starts with deciding what to wear, how to wear it, and so forth. Imagine the world without fashion. Not a nice one is it? Every individual owes admiration to those behind-the-scenes people who are responsible for making the world so fashionable; one in particular a fashion marketer. A career as a Fashion Marketer is an interesting career filled with nothing but fashion, adventure, and excitement. Being a Fashion Marketer is an exhilarating yet not so subtle career. It is a marketers job to promote fashion. They want to generate the publics interest in new styles and products. Fashion marketing involves advertising, but it is more than that. Fashion marketers have to be on the cutting edge endorsing the right things at the right time. They connect the public with the world of fashion, and they help set trends (Stone 4). To work in this field an individual will have to have the assured characteristics neededA persons job should reflect their personality and display the persons characteristics. In the fashion industry there are many personalities, many of them being egotistical ones. Enthusiasm, flexibility, and a positive attitude are essential characteristics necessary to find success in the retail industry. (Retail Marketing Careers.) A person can also apply his or her basic skills such as computer literacy, working well with people and a strong work ethic to the table when applying for a career in Fashion Marketing. Generally light travel is required to work in marketing retail. Stress and a little commitment and overtime are involved, however, nothing to extreme. This allows workers to spend more time with their families. On a daily basis a person may come across an individual who is arrogant and discourteous, but this can happen at any job. Those working in retail also have more time to become i nvolved in the community. It is not simple and not too complex becoming a Fashion Marketer or working in the marketing field as long as it fits with the individuals personality. Of course, everyone knows nowadays a high school diploma means nothing anymore. College degrees, training or any certification subsequent to high school is mandatory for success. To become a fashion marketer one would need  to major in Fashion Merchandising or Marketing and minor in business fields such as accounting, business administration, or marketing just to develop the business aspect of the Fashion Merchandising field. An individual can receive an Associates degree, Bachelors degree or Masters depending on the individual. Schools offering the Fashion Merchandising program are predominantly in New York and California; however, local community colleges and universities should not be overlooked. Other universities known to offer the program are University of MD Eastern Shore; Morgan State University; F.I.T. (Fashion Institute of Technology); and AIP (Art Institute of Philadelphia). Some courses required to achieve in this field are accounting, business law, psychology, merchandising, advertising and promoting, and entrepreneurship, and Intro to fashion (Stone 6-8). Although having a degree is not a bare necessity to get into the fashion industry, it helps to have one so opportunities will always be available. Having a degree will also improve ones salaryA fashion marketers salary ranges on experience and knowledge. More often it is how much experience a person has rather than his or her knowledge. Salaries for beginners start as low as $15,000-29,000 a year depending on the occupation (Retail). As ones experience or knowledge increases so do the wages. At an intermediate level the salary starts anywhere from $33,873-76,450 a year. At the executive or advanced level salaries range from $84,923-119,140 a year. Location is the key when deciding on what occupation fits ones criteria because the location also determines ones salary (Advertising). The outlook on careers in fashion marketing and any career in fashion overall is expected to grow more slowly than average through 2014 (Retail). Sluggish job growth may be due to the new prominence of discount stores, super centers and warehouse stores, offering cut-rate clothing without the frills and fancy store displays of high-end department stores. The Internet may also cut into sales. However, even with lethargic job growth, basic retailing jobs should still be relatively easy to find, simply because this is a very large field with a high turnover rate (Retail). And top level marketing jobs will be extremely competitive no matter how fast the business is growing. It is really all about location. Know what works and do not let salaries determine your career. Go with what suits your personality best. Works Cited â€Å"Advertising, Marketing, Promotions, Public Relations, and Sales Managers.† http://www.bls.gov. 04 Aug. 2006. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. 22 Aug. 2007 . â€Å"Retail Marketing Careers.† www.Careeroverview.Com. 24 Apr. 2007 . Stone, Elaine. The Dynamics of Fashion. 2nd Ed. New York: Fairchild Publications Inc., 2004. 04-10.